Sustainability of
Water Supply Projects
Dhundi Raj Dahal, PhD
Received: January
10, 2024; Revised & Accepted: June 22, 2024
Copyright: Dahal (2024)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International
License.
Abstract
Sustainability
is one of the major issues for Water Supply and Sanitation activities/
projects. The project should have the measuring tools for the sustainable part.
Water supply is one of the basic needs for human beings with all living things
may come first air then water or soil in the universe to sustain.
Sustainability indicators of water supply projects was determined by three
major dimensions (i) technical, (ii) Socio-environmental, and (iii)
Institutional
Keywords:
Water supply, study, operation and maintenance,
sustainability, functionality
पानी आपूर्ति र सरसफाइ गतिविधि/परियोजनाहरूको लागि टिकाउपन एक प्रमुख मुद्दा हो। परियोजनासँग टिकाउ पक्षको मापन उपकरणहरू हुनु पर्छ। पानी आपूर्ति मानव जीवनका साथै समस्त प्राणीका लागि एक आधारभूत आवश्यकता हो, जसको महत्व वायु र माटो पछिको स्थानमा आउँछ। पानी आपूर्ति परियोजनाहरूका टिकाउपन सूचकहरू तीन प्रमुख आयामहरूद्वारा निर्धारण गरिएको छ: (i) प्राविधिक, (ii) सामाजिक-वातावरणीय, र (iii) संस्थागत [१५]। अन्य पक्षहरूमा, कार्यक्षमतालाई आवश्यकताहरू, कार्यहरू, र परिणामहरूमा विभाजन गरिएको छ। टिकाउपन भनेको कार्यक्षमता सूचकाङ्क र टिकाउपन आयामहरूको पचास-पचास प्रतिशत आधारमा संयोजन हो। यस अनुसन्धानले उपलब्ध साहित्य र व्यावहारिक अनुभवको आधारमा टिकाउपन उपकरणहरू विकसित गरेको छ। परियोजना अध्ययनले पूर्व-व्यवहार्यता अध्ययन, व्यवहार्यता, विस्तृत अध्ययन देखि नै टिकाउपनको विचार गर्नु पर्छ।
कुञ्जीशब्दहरू: पानी आपूर्ति, अध्ययन, सञ्चालन र मर्मतसम्भार, टिकाउपन, कार्यक्षमता
Introduction
Sustainability
is required in each and every step of the activities. Sustainability is one of
the major issues for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (WSSP). One has to
take consideration for the sustainability from the pre-feasibility study,
feasibility, detail project report (DPR) of the study, construction period, and
operation and maintenance phase. The study team for any construction must think
about the sustainable part from the very beginning to the life of the project. There
is always a problem finding the measuring tools for this issue in water supply
projects even though the word sustainability is socio technical. Any project
should have the measuring tools for the sustainable part. Water supply is one
of the basic needs for human beings with all living things may come first air
then water or soil in the universe to survive.
Water is one of the fundamental needs to
keep the body alive, because the body needs nutrients and water to work
properly. However, billions of people in the world still lack access to safe
drinking water and sanitation. According to sustainable goal report 2021, 2
billion (26%) people lack safely managed drinking water, 3.6 billion people
lack safely managed sanitation, and 2.3 billion people lack basic hygiene. 129
countries are still not on track to have sustainably managed water resources by
2030
In
this context the research paper has developed the sustainable measuring tools
for the completed or substantial completed water supply project.
1.
Literature Review
and Research Methods
Mukharjee et. al (2003) described
sustainability based on the publication of WSP & IRC (2003) as the
satisfactory functioning and effective use of services, and equity for men and
women, rich and poor everyone having equal access to benefits from projects.
Another publication of IRC by Schouten et.al., (2003) included as a part of
sustainability that a statement, a system that reliable sustainability met the
needs of 80 % of the population wile leaving the poorest 20 % unserved cannot
be counted a success
Three Pillars of Sustainability
Since 1980s, when three pillars as (i)
economic, (ii) social, and (iii) environmental of sustainability widely
popularized in business, government agencies, and other organizations, applied
in practice
|
Sustainability |
||
|
Economic |
Social |
Environment |
Figure
1: Three Pillars of Sustainability
Source: Moore,
2017
UNESCO Sustainability
The United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has played a key role in the
development of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs. It has adopted four pillars (i) Social
equity, (ii) Economic development, (iii) Environmental protection, and (iv)
Cultural/Human sustainability
UN
Sustainable Development Goal
Development
agenda of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG6) envisions universal sustainable
and equitable access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene and
elimination of open defecation by 2030 A.D. The targets of SDG6 for 2030 are
Target 6.1: By 2030 A.D., achieve universal and
equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all.
Target 6.2: By 2030 A.D., achieve access to adequate
and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying
special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable
situations.
Target 6.3: By 2030 A.D., improve water quality by
reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous
chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and
substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.
Target 6.4: By 2030 A.D., substantially increase
water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and
supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the
number of people suffering from water scarcity.
Target 6.5: By 2030 A.D., implement integrated water
resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation
as appropriate.
Target 6.6: By 2030 A.D., protect and restore
water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers,
aquifers, and lakes.
Target 6.A: By 2030 A.D., expand international
cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and
sanitation-related activities and programs, including water harvesting,
desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse
technologies.
Target 6.B: Support and strengthen the participation
of local communities in improving water and sanitation management.
Water Supply Sustainability in Global
context
The European Union, America and Africa has discussed
on water quality concern more than other issues like sustainability though in
western countries there is no problems experienced of uncertainty.
The
Dutch Drinking Water Decree outlines the legal requirements for drinking water
quality. Limits on the concentrations of lead (10 micrograms per liter) and
mercury (1 microgram per liter) in drinking water are among these regulations.
The European Drinking Water Directive is the foundation for these standards.
The evaluation's findings show that the Drinking Water Directive is a crucial
piece of legislation that protects the quality of drinking water in European
member states
The
Drinking Water Directive (EU 2020/2184), generally known as the Drinking Water
Directive, has begun to be implemented in Finland. Making sure there is safe
drinking water is the directive's main goal. This will be accomplished by
looking at the drinking water quality standards established through risk
management. The entire water production and distribution system, from raw water
to tap water delivered to customers, must be considered throughout the risk
assessment process. The World Health Organization's recommendations are
typically revised together with the quality recommendations for drinking water
at Finland
Primary
and secondary drinking water regulations exist in the USA. The National Primary
Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR) are primary criteria and treatment methods
that are legally enforceable for public water systems. Toxin levels in drinking
water are reduced by primary standards and treatment methods, protecting public
health. The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs), developed by
the EPA, define obligatory water quality limits for pollutants in drinking
water
Sustainability context in Nepal
The sustainability of water supply has
evaluated in the context of water quality, quantity required by the users, and consistency
of water supply service to the consumers have reviewed from the article
published in Wash journal in 2023
Government of
Nepal (GoN) was committed for the provision of basic level water supply and
sanitation facilities to all citizens by 2017. Water and sanitation are
recognized as fundamental human rights
Water Quality context in Nepal
Initially,
GoN had adopted World Health Organization (WHO) standard for drinking water
purpose but limited in theory only. It could not be made effective. After this
effort, it had developed water quality standard in 2005, it stated that the
existing water supplies not meeting National Drinking Water Quality Standards
(NDWQS) will be improved in phased manner with appropriate treatment measures.
The Government of Nepal (GoN) has developed
and made it mandatory to comply with its provisions in all new water supply
systems and has triggered a water quality improvement in urban and rural water
supplies, in 2022, GoN updated the National Drinking Water Quality Standards.
The updated version has two tables Table ‘Ka’ and Table ‘Kha’. The parameters
whose test is compulsory listed in table ‘Ka’ however, some other parameters
are added in the Table ‘Kha’ according to risk and necessity of parameters for
the test
Salyankot Water Supply Project was studied
on post-earthquake scenario during earthquake period 2015 by Mr. Shah with the
dimensions as i) Technical, ii) Socio-environmental, iii) Institutional, and
iv) Cost Recovery with corresponding core factors contributing for
sustainability, these dimensions were identified
Mangardh Water Supply Scheme was evaluated
the water supply coverage aspect. The study was overall performance; technical
performance, financial performance(tariff collection), and institutional
performance (functionality index) with implementation status on the base of
water safety plan (WSP) referring to the risk factor by Joshi et.al in 2020
Functionality
Performance is the attainment or
fulfilment or functionality in the context of any development action. It also
shows the sustainability part of the development project or action
Institutional performance was evaluated on
Dhankuta Water Supply Project by A.K. Mishra using water safety plan developed
by DWSS/NMIP, 2014. The indicators were (i) WUSC registration, (ii) Own staff
for maintenance, (iii) O & M fund, (iv) WUSC meetings, (v) Efficient water
tariff collection, (vi) Records keeping, (vii) Spare tools & fittings,
(viii) Implementation of water safety plan, (ix) Water supply service
reliability, and (x) Accessibility with 100 unit of marks in Likert scale
measurement
Er.
Ajita Devkota studied Anbukhaireni Water Supply and Sanitation Project in 2023
and found the performance which was analyzed based on the quality of water
supply, reliability, and sufficiency, in which quality of water supply measured
in accordance with the National Drinking Water Quality Standards
Research Methods
Sustainability
of water supply and sanitation projects has been reviewed on the past studies. The
projects/ schemes have been tried to re-evaluate with the available tools. The
practical experiences have fitted in the tools and further improved in detail
so that there could be eased to evaluate without biasness.
The
developed tools have further tested and found reliable to measure sustainable
using Likert scale experience outcome from more than fifty water supply
projects in Nepal. The findings have been discussed hereunder.
The
developed tools have chances of 10 per cent bias or 90 per cent level in
unbiased. It is improved on the previous versions. Furthermore, this improved
tool is easy to use for the water supply and sanitation projects.
Sustainability Dimensions
Sustainability
Dimensions are the highest-level monitoring indicators adopted by WaterAid in
Nepal. For water supply and sanitation projects, four monitoring dimensions are
used (i) technical, (ii) socio-environmental, (iii) financial, and (iv) institutional.
The dimension is significantly governed by many factors and subfactors. Principles
of multi-criteria approaches, each set of criteria is rated depending upon its
potential contribution or its significance in making the case sustainable. The
weights given to dimensions, factors and sub-factors were determined through
participatory methods involving sector professionals and field workers
Conceptual Framework
Sustainability
indicators of water supply projects was determined by three major dimensions
(i) technical, (ii) Socio-environmental, and (iii) Institutional
The
research design has been conceptualized as sustainability has two pillars (i) Functionality
index, and (ii) Sustainability indicators with sub-indication as figured below.
|
Sustainability of the
Projects/Actions |
|||||
|
Functionality |
Sustainability Index |
||||
|
Requirements |
Actions |
Results |
Technical |
Socio-environmental |
Institutional |
|
WUSC Registered, WUSC meetings, and Record keeping |
Own Staff, O& M Fund, and Tariff Collection |
Tools & Fittings, Water Safety Plan, Reliability, and Accessibility |
Verification of QARQ (Quantity, Accessibility, Reliability, and
Quality) level and physical status of the system |
Health benefits (including water borne diseases) Time save,
Environmental benefits, and GESI aspects
|
Operation and functioning of Users Committee, Skilled Technicians, O
& M practice, and Financial aspects (O & M cost, Institutional
support, Capital cost recovery/ upgrading the system) |
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework of Research Sustainability
Source:
Author, 2024
2.
Results and
Discussions
Functionality
Functionality
index for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (WSSP).
Table 1: Functionality index table
|
Indicator |
Sub-indicators |
Weightage |
Not Serviceable |
Up to 20% |
20%-50% |
50%-80% |
80%-100% |
|
|
Very Bad |
Bad |
Satisfactory |
Good |
Very Good |
||||
|
0-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
Requirements (R)9/ |
WSUC Registered |
|
Not Registered |
Registered but not Renewed &
Audited |
Audited but not renewed |
Renewed & GB till 2 yrs. back |
Renewed & GB conducted |
|
|
Yes (5), No (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
WSUC Meetings |
|
No meetings or once in a year
meeting |
Meeting in the desires of
Chairperson |
Regular less than tri-monthly
meetings |
Regular tri-monthly meetings |
Regular monthly meetings |
||
|
Regular Yes (5), No (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
Record keeping |
|
Rarely record keeping of connection
& Tariff |
Record keeping of connection &
Tariff in random system |
Poorly records keepings, records are
available but audited till before last year |
Meetings, Water connection and
tariff records keeping till last months |
WUSC meetings, Staff meetings, Water
connection and tariff updated records keeping |
||
|
Proper (5), No (0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
Action (A) |
Having own staff
with maintenance workers |
|
No Staff |
Poorly Staff hired with in daily
wise basis |
Poorly Staff hired with in monthly
basis |
Poorly managed Enough Staff |
Sufficient staff with Job description |
|
|
Yes (5), No (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
O & M Fund Management |
|
No fund |
Poorly allocated fund for O & M |
Fund
less than 3% of the Construction Cost |
Fund
about 5% of the Construction Cost |
Sufficient fund more than 5% of the
Construction Cost |
||
|
Sufficient (5), No (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
Efficient water tariff collection |
|
No tariff collection system |
Poorly managed tariff collection
system up to 40% of the billings |
Tariffs collection 40-80% |
Tariffs collection 80-95% |
Tariffs collection 95% or more |
||
|
Yes (5), No (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
Tools and fittings reserve |
|
No tools & spare parts |
Tools are available but no spare
parts |
Poorly manage tools & spare
parts |
Good managed tools & spare parts |
Well managed tools & spare parts stock
for 3 months |
||
|
Sufficient (5), No (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
Results (R) |
Water Safety Plan |
Functional (5), Nonfunctional (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Reliability (360 days’ supply) |
|
Rarely Water Supply |
Poorly Water Supply |
Safe Water Supply in 4hrs (2mor
+2eve)/360 |
Safe Water Supply in 8hrs (4mor
+4eve)/360 |
Safe Water Supply in 24/360 |
||
|
Yes (5), Six month (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
Accessibility of supply |
|
Rarely Water Supply time to collect
more than 30 min. |
Poorly Water Accessible on the court
yards with public tapstands within 30 min. |
Manageable Water Accessible on the
court yards |
Sufficient Water Accessible on the
court yards |
Sufficient Water Accessible on the
top of 3 story building |
||
|
15 minutes (5), More than 30 minutes (0) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
The
calculation score of functionalities will be higher to the lower based on risk
factors as the indicators of the index.
The
calculation of sustainability will be in weighted 50% for functionality and 50%
for Sustainability dimension for the whole activities or project considering
risk factors.
Sustainability
Dimensions
Sustainability
index or dimension of Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (WSSP) has been
modified in the three-pillar system as (i) Technical, (ii) Socio-environmental,
and (iii) Institutional as stated earlier.
Table 2: Sustainability Dimension Table
|
Sustainability Dimensions |
Sub-Dimensions |
Weightage |
V. Bad |
Bad |
Satisfactory |
Good |
Very Good |
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|||
|
|
Quantity of water |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
|
% |
30- |
40+ |
50+ |
80+ |
90+ |
|
Technical |
Physical Quality
of water |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
Nos. 5 compulsory(C) +1=6 of
parameter within limit |
2C- |
2C+ |
3C+ |
5C |
6/6 |
||
|
Chemical Quality
of water |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Nos. 12
compulsory(C) +1=13 of parameter within limit |
5- |
5+ |
7+ |
12 |
13/13 |
||
|
Biological Quality
of water |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Microbial
parameter % samples within limit |
50- |
50+ |
80 |
95 |
100 |
||
|
Reliability of
water supply |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
As per risks |
|||||||
|
Physical status/
Structures of the system |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
As per risks |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
Institutional |
Timely General
Assembly |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
As per
risks |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
Water Tariff
collection System |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Active involvement
of WUSC team |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Record keeping
Mechanism |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Community
Technicians for O&M |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Socio-environmental |
Gender Equity and
Social Inclusion status in team |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
Social Security Risk for
woman |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Environmental Health status/water borne diseases
after the project |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Managing Operation
and Maintenance fund |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Tariff collection |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Collection
in % |
Less than 20 |
20-40 |
40-60 |
60-80 |
80-100 |
||
|
Economy Availability of fund from local
bodies and others organization |
1-5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
Source:
Author, 2024
Risks
will be categorized by the researcher as the sustainability sub-dimensions of
the system. The score of the risks will be prejudiced as the higher to the
lower.
Conclusion
and Recommendation
The
project sustainability will be adopted in weighted 50% for functionality index
and 50% for Sustainability dimension for the whole activities or project
considering risk factors. The criteria has been fixed as per the experience on
water supply and sanitation projects with reviewing the available literature.
Sustainability
is one of the serious issues for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (WSSP).
One has to take consideration for the sustainability from the pre-feasibility
study, feasibility, detail study. Further research and criteria could be
reviewed for the project, as per the time advanced and complexity come to the
situation.
References
|
[1] |
United Nation, "The Sustainable Development Goals
Report 2021, Water for Life," United Nations Publication, New York,
2005. |
|
[2] |
X. Schouten, "Predicting Sustainable Performance and
Household Satisfaction of Community-oriented Rural Water Supply
Project," IRC, 2003. |
|
[3] |
Y. Moore, "Developing a Comprehensive Definition of
Sustainability," Implementation Science, vol. 12, no.
10.1186/s13012-017-0637-1, p. 110, 2017. |
|
[4] |
UNESCO, "Sustainable Development | UNESCO,"
[Online]. Available: https://www.unesco.org/en/sustainable-development.
[Accessed 13 10 2023]. |
|
[5] |
G. Finland, "WHO," Government of Finland,
[Online]. Available:
https://valtioneuvosto.fi/en/-/1271139/finland-starts-implementing-eu-s-new-drinking-water-directive.
[Accessed 22 5 2022]. |
|
[6] |
E. P. Agency, The National Primary Drinking Water
Regulations, Wasington D.C.:
https://www.epa.gov/sdwa/secondary-drinking-water-standards-guidance-nuisance-chemicals,
2022. |
|
[7] |
A. Devkota and D. R. Dahal, "Water Quality Review of
Anbhukhaireni Water Supply Project," Wash Journal, vol. 20, no.
March 2023, 2023. |
|
[8] |
GON, "Water Supply and Sanitation Policy,"
DWSSM, Kathmandu, 2014. |
|
[9] |
GoN, National Water Quality Standard 2022, Kathmandu:
Ministry of Water Supply, 2022. |
|
[10] |
A. K. Mishra, "International Journal of Operations
Management and Information Technology.," International Journal of
Operations Management and Information Technology., Vols. 8-1, no.
http://www.ripublication.com, pp. 1-30, 2018. |
|
[11] |
G. Joshi, A. K. Mishra and &. J. Ghimire,
"Performance Assessment of Water Supply Scheme: A Case Study of
Mangadh Water Supply Scheme, Nepal," TEST Engineering &
Management, vol. 83, no. May-Jun 2020, pp. 30105-30116, 2020. |
|
[12] |
"Performance," Dictionary.com, [Online].
Available: https://www.thesaurus.com/browse/performance. [Accessed 13 10
2023]. |
|
[13] |
A. K. Mishra, "Institutional Performance Assessment
of Water Supply System," Saudi Journal of Business and Management
Studies, no. Middle East Publication, pp. 698-707, 2020. |
|
[14] |
D. Ajita, Sustainability of Water Supply Project : A
case Study of Anbukhaireni Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Kathmandu:
Pokhara University, 2023. |
|
[15] |
A. K. Mishra, "Sustainability and Risk Assessment of
Salyankot Water Supply Project in Post Earthquake Scenario," Intenational
Journal of Operations Management and Information Technology ISSN 2778-3628,
vol. 8, no. http://www.ripublication.com, pp. 1-30, 2018. |
Acharya, B. (2024). Education Policies and Practices for Ensuring
Quality Education in Nepal. Nepal Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 7(1),
158-174. doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v7i1.65271
Agormedah, E. K., Britwum, F., A. S., A. E., & Kusi-Appiah, V.
(2024). Psychological Distress and Students’ Academic Achievement in the
Colleges of Education: Does Gender Matter? Nepal Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research, 7(1), 40–61. https:, 40-61.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v7i1.65245
Dhakal, R. L., Adhikari, D. B., Ghimire, M. N., & Neupane, D.
(2018). An explorative study of academic performance of school students with
reference to Ethnicity. International Journal of Applied Research, 4(5),
36-38.
Ghimire, M. N., & Neupane, D. (2022). An Exploratory Study on Status
of Homestays from Lamjung. Nepal Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
(NJMR), 5(5), 119-126. doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v5i5.51812
Karki, T. B., Mahat, D., & Neupane, D. (2023). Exploring the
Academic Landscape: A Critical Analysis and Review of the Nepal Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research. Nepal Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 6(4),
128-138.
Lamichhane, B., & Neupane, D. (2023). Perceived Organizational
Support in Nepalese Banks. International Journal of Atharva, 1(1),
1-13. doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/ija.v1i1.58835
Mahat, D., Karki, T. B., Neupane, D., Shrestha, D. K., & Shrestha,
S. (2024). Decolonization in Focus: A Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific
Articles from 2010 to 2023. Nepal Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 7(1),
1-21. doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v7i1.65142
Neupane, A., & Ghimire, M. N. (2023). Age Bar for the Retirement of
Politicians. Nepal Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 6(1),
102-107. doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v6i1.54356
Neupane, D. (2014). Age and Peer Victimization among School Adolescents
in Kathmandu, Nepal. Journal of Advanced Academic Research (JAAR), 1(1),
18-23.
Neupane, D. (2014). Gender Role in School Bullying. Journal of
Chitwan Medical College, 4(7), 37-41. Retrieved from
https://www.cmc.edu.np/images/gallery/Original%20Articles/oGfWOoriginal7.pdf
Neupane, D. (2018). Food Choice Motives of Guardians of Trilok Academy
Kathmandu with reference to Gender. Nepal Journal of Multidisciplinary
Research (NJMR), 1(1), 73-81.
Neupane, D. (2019). Food choice motives of adults from Kathmandu city
with reference to ethnicity. International Journal of Applied Research, 5(3),
182-185.
Odigwe, M., & Mchi, A. A. (2024). The Impact of Covid-19 on Urban
Planning of Port Harcourt City, Nigeria. Nepal Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research, 7(1), 111-123.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v7i1.65268
Panta, S., Neupane, D., & Bhattarai, P. (2023). Preferred Learning
Techniques among Bachelor’s Level Students. Nepal Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research (NJMR), 6(2), 145-154.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v6i2.57660
Regmi, R. B., Adhikari, D. B., Ghimire, M., & Neupane, D. (2018). An
exploratory research on academic performance of school students with
reference to religion. International Journal of Applied Research, 4(5),
76-81.
Shastha Banu, A. A. (2024). Healing through Ruqyah and Academic
Achievement of Children in Muslim Community. Nepal Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research, 7(1), 124-138.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v7i1.65269
Shrestha, R., & Timalsena, C. (2023). Perceived External CSR from
Employees’ Perspective in Nepalese Banking Industry. Nepal Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research (NJMR), 6(3), 145-155.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v6i3.59718
Shrestha, S., Mahat, D., & Neupane, D. (2024). Quantitative Research
Design and Sample Trends: A Systematic Examination of Emerging Paradigms and
Best Practices. Cognizance Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 4(2),
20-27. doi:10.47760/cognizance.2024.v04i02.002
Subedi, C. K., & Neupane, D. (2018). Gender differences in learning
style preferences of high school students. International Journal of
Applied Research, 4(1), 215-221.
Adhikari, L., &
Thapa, M. (2024). Exploring Forms and Practices of Menstruation in the Changing
Social System: A Study of Suryabinayak-05, Katunje, Bhaktapur. Baneshwor
Campus Journal of Academia, 3(1), 133–142.
https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65637
Airi, L. B., & Bhattarai, S. P. (2024). Exploring the
Impact of Media Content on Social Media Engagement Through Comment Analysis. Baneshwor
Campus Journal of Academia, 3(1), 27–36.
https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65461
Dangol, S., & Mishra, R. (2024). Patient Characteristics
on Satisfaction with Healthcare Quality in a Teaching Hospital in Nepal. Baneshwor
Campus Journal of Academia, 3(1), 121–132.
https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65632
Dhungel, H. B. (2024). Impact of Climate Change on the
Farming Community of Bhaktapur District of Nepal. Baneshwor Campus Journal
of Academia, 3(1), 50–62. https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65496
Ghimire, S., & Lamichhane, M. R. (2024). The Concept of
National Security in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Baneshwor Campus Journal of
Academia, 3(1), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65599
Khadka, S., Nyaupane, N. P., & Timalsena, C. (2024).
Assessing the Relationship between Demographic Attributes and Patients’ Views
of Hospital Environment. Baneshwor Campus Journal of Academia, 3(1),
108–120. https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65626
Neupane, A., & Baral, B. R. (2024). Understanding Suicide
Cases in Nepal: A Comprehensive Analysis of Personality Traits. Baneshwor
Campus Journal of Academia, 3(1), 74–85.
https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65602
Pandey, L. (2024). Interplay of Corporate Sector, Politics,
and Media in Shaping News Contents in Nepal. Baneshwor Campus Journal of
Academia, 3(1), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65656
Pariyar, M. S., Bhujel, S., Kushwaha, S., Gyawali, A., Lama,
S., & Neupane, D. K. (2024). Exploring Elements of Style in the Poem
“Drought”: Unraveling the Layers of Meaning. Baneshwor Campus Journal of
Academia, 3(1), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65617
Rimal, P., Bhattarai, P., Pokhrel, P., Pradhananga, P.,
Shahi, P., Magar, P. R., & Ghimire, J. C. (2024). Assessing the
Relationship between Students Attitude and Online Shopping. Baneshwor Campus
Journal of Academia, 3(1), 96–107.
https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65625
Sigdel, U., & Rijal, T. (2024). Persistent and
implications of Changing Livelihood in Hill Setting of Nepal: A Qualitative
Inquiry of Vyas-10 of Tanahun. Baneshwor Campus Journal of Academia, 3(1),
37–49. https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65494
Timilsina, S. K. (2024). Loss of Citizenship Provisions in
Nepal’s Citizenship Law: Addressing the Risk of Statelessness in Accordance
with International Conventions. Baneshwor Campus Journal of Academia, 3(1),
163–175. https://doi.org/10.3126/bcja.v3i1.65658
