NPRC Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, Vol. 3 No. 2 (2026): Complete Issue Review

Opening Paragraph

The February 2026 issue of the NPRC Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (Volume 3, Number 2) presents seventeen original research articles spanning an impressive breadth of disciplinary domains, including public administration, environmental science, health studies, economics, education, migration studies, cultural heritage, and technology. Published by Tribhuvan University Central Library through the Nepal Journals Online platform, this issue demonstrates the journal's commitment to advancing knowledge on pressing issues facing Nepal and the broader South Asian region. The collection is particularly notable for its strong policy orientation, with most articles offering actionable recommendations for policymakers, practitioners, and community stakeholders. From examinations of green governance and sustainable development to analyses of immigrant workers' vulnerabilities and machine learning applications in economic forecasting, this issue reflects both methodological diversity and contextual relevance. The following reviews provide brief analytical summaries of each contribution, highlighting their research approaches, key findings, and contributions to their respective fields.

Article 1: Human Rights Approach in Nepal's Development Strategies: A Critical Overview

Author: Er. Sachindra Kumar Deo (Pages 1-11)

This foundational article opens the issue with a critical examination of how the Human Rights-Based Approach (HRBA) has been operationalized within Nepal's development framework. Through qualitative analysis of constitutional texts, periodic plans, and institutional reports, the author assesses the gap between normative commitments and substantive outcomes. The study reveals that while Nepal has achieved substantial progress in constitutionalizing fundamental rights and aligning development planning with HRBA principles and Sustainable Development Goals, a persistent implementation gap remains. The National Human Rights Commission, despite its constitutional status and Paris Principles accreditation, faces challenges in enforcing its recommendations due to weak institutional coordination and political interference. Through a SWOT analysis, the article identifies federalism and international partnerships as opportunities, while political instability and entrenched social inequalities pose significant threats. The author concludes that without strengthening sub-national governance, institutionalizing rights education, and ensuring meaningful participation of marginalized groups, HRBA risks remaining rhetorical rather than transformative.

Article 2: Coping Strategies of Teachers and Students in Addressing Teaching-Learning Challenges within the Semester System at Mid-West University

Author: Ramesh Khatri (Pages 12-23)

This qualitative narrative inquiry explores the challenges encountered by teachers and students in implementing the semester system at Mid-West University, a newly established public institution in Nepal's remote Karnali region. Through in-depth interviews with five teachers and five students across five graduate schools, the study identifies five thematic challenges: curriculum-practice mismatch, infrastructure and resource constraints, ICT skill gaps, time pressure and assessment load, and adaptive self-reliance amid weak institutional support. Teachers reported teaching outdated content, such as referencing village development committees long after Nepal's transition to federalism, and developed coping strategies including selective teaching, reliance on online resources, and personal investment in teaching materials. Students faced overcrowded classrooms, inadequate library resources, and heavy assessment loads, responding through peer learning and self-study. The study uniquely reveals how both groups demonstrate remarkable adaptability despite systemic shortcomings, with teachers teaching on holidays and developing self-prepared materials. The author recommends urgent curriculum revision aligned with labor market demands, establishment of centralized digital resource hubs, and balanced assessment policies.

Article 3: Impact of Road Infrastructure to Market Access and Income Generating Opportunities of Rural Area in Mahottari District of Nepal

Authors: Bhagu Yadav & Madhav Prasad Dahal (Pages 24-40)

This mixed-methods study examines how road infrastructure improvements between 2016 and 2024 have transformed rural livelihoods in three municipalities of Mahottari District. Drawing on household surveys with 240 respondents, key informant interviews with rural municipality presidents, and focus group discussions, the research demonstrates that improved road connectivity has substantially enhanced market access by reducing travel time and transportation costs. The findings reveal significant livelihood diversification: while 78.2% of households relied primarily on agriculture before road development, this figure decreased to 25.8% afterward, with households transitioning to livestock farming, small businesses, shopkeeping, fishery, and wage employment. Quantitative analysis shows that average monthly household income increased from pre-road levels, with a mean impact score of 3.72 indicating strong positive effects. The study confirms Growth Pole Theory, demonstrating how roads serve as catalysts for local economic development by connecting rural producers to larger markets, enabling better prices for agricultural goods, and facilitating access to inputs and services. The authors recommend continued investment in rural road infrastructure integrated with local economic planning and value chain development.

Article 4: Green Governance: The Role of Public Administration in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Authors: Prem Bahadur Giri, Tek Nath Dhakal, Hari Prasad Ghimire, Uttam Raj Giri & Ajay Giri (Pages 41-64)

This systematic literature review, conducted using the PRISMA 2020 framework across Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases, reconceptualizes green governance as an administrative transformation process rather than merely sectoral environmental policy. Analyzing 53 studies published since 2020, the authors identify five fundamental dimensions of green governance: governance mechanisms, bureaucratic capacity, policy instruments, institutional barriers, and best practices. The review reveals that comprehensive and inclusive governance systems enhance policy coherence and legitimacy, while professional and independent bureaucracies optimize regulatory and adaptive capacity. Notably, the study finds that sustainability performance is enhanced through combined regulatory, market-based, and informational tools, yet fragmented institutions, limited capacity, weak accountability, and political short-termism continue to constrain SDG implementation. The theoretical contribution lies in positioning public administration as a constitutive agent mediating between sustainability aspirations and measurable outcomes. The authors conclude that countries with stronger administrative capacity and integrated governance systems are more likely to achieve sustained progress on environmental SDGs, offering policy implications for inter-ministerial coordination, capacity building, participatory governance, and performance-based monitoring.

Article 5: Carbon Sequestration Rates Using the Allometric Equations of the Fast Growing Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) in Central Nepal

Authors: Nabin Raj Joshi & Gunanand Pant (Pages 65-89)

This original research addresses a critical gap in Nepal's forestry science by developing species-specific allometric equations for Paulownia tomentosa, a fast-growing tree species recently introduced to Nepal for its carbon sequestration and land restoration potential. Through destructive sampling of nineteen 15-20-year-old trees at ICIMOD's Knowledge Park in Godavari, the researchers measured biomass across seven tree components and developed regression models based on diameter at breast height (DBH). The study finds that the logarithmic model ln(M) = β₀ + β₁ ln(D) provides the most optimal predictions, with DBH serving as a reliable single predictor while adding tree height did not improve model performance. The carbon sequestration analysis reveals remarkable results: mean baseline carbon stock of 149.81 tC ha⁻¹ in 2014 increased to 202.01 tC ha⁻¹ by 2022, yielding a sequestration rate of 5.87 tC ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. This rate exceeds those reported for REDD+ pilot sites in Nepal and Indian Himalayan forests. The root-shoot ratio of 0.11 indicates greater aboveground biomass allocation, suggesting the species may not be ideal for highly erosive slopes. The equations provide smallholders, community forest managers, and policymakers with practical tools for estimating plantation productivity and carbon credits.

Article 6: Risks of De-institutionalizing Foreign Policy in Nepal

Author: Kaushal Kishor Ray (Pages 90-98)

This timely policy analysis examines the growing trend of de-institutionalizing foreign policy in Nepal, where formal diplomatic processes are increasingly bypassed in favor of informal, ad-hoc, and leader-centric approaches. Drawing on institutionalism and foreign policy analysis frameworks, the author identifies globalization, rapid advancement of information technology, democratization of foreign policy, and domestic political instability as primary drivers. The study critically analyzes how this trend has led to poor inter-agency coordination, fragmented policy positions in international negotiations, weakened accountability, and suboptimal outcomes in areas like climate diplomacy and international development cooperation. The author draws parallels with Mexico's experience, where neoliberal reforms led to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs losing coordination powers in technical areas. In Nepal's context, with 17 governments in 20 years, political instability has exacerbated institutional erosion, leading to confusion over institutional arrangements for climate finance negotiations and challenges in ratifying international agreements like the MCC Compact. The article concludes that reversing this trend requires enhanced institutionalization, capacity-building within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and strengthening of established rules and coordinating mechanisms to ensure policy continuity, credibility, and efficacy.

Article 7: Crop Insurance in Nepal: Farmers' Perception on Paddy Crop Insurance and Institutional Performance in Chitwan and Bardiya Districts

Authors: Shiva Sundar Ghimire, Shiddi Ganesh Shrestha, Hari Krishna Panta, Govinda Prasad Sharma & Udit Prakash Sigdel (Pages 99-115)

This comprehensive mixed-methods study investigates the persistently low penetration of Nepal's subsidized agricultural insurance program, focusing on paddy farmers in two major grain-producing districts. Surveying 460 respondents equally divided between insured and non-insured farmers, supplemented by key informant interviews and focus group discussions, the research reveals a striking paradox: while farmers appreciate the government's initiative (index value 0.44), they express strong dissatisfaction with claim procedures, compensation adequacy (-0.27), and timely payment (-0.31). Institutional performance assessment shows the Nepal Insurance Authority receiving negative perceptions across most roles (-0.09 mean index), particularly in dispute resolution (-0.21) and claim documentation facilitation (-0.14). Insurance companies performed better on document requirements (0.27) but poorly on timely claim payment (-0.30). Key barriers include complex documentation, delayed claim settlement, low awareness, and poor coordination among implementing agencies. The study uniquely compares Chitwan and Bardiya districts, revealing significant socio-demographic differences with Bardiya exhibiting higher illiteracy (39.52%) and ethnic diversity. The authors recommend standardized technology-based loss assessment mechanisms, trained loss assessors, simplified procedures, and active dispute resolution roles for regulatory bodies.

Article 8: Ensemble Based Machine Learning Model for Prediction of Diabetes

Author: Ramesh Prasad Bhatta (Pages 116-129)

This technical study evaluates the performance of ensemble learning algorithms for early diabetes prediction using the PIMA Indian Diabetes dataset, with important implications for healthcare in developing countries where early detection can reduce complications and expenses. The research benchmarks AdaBoost, Gradient Boosting, XGBoost, and a Stacking Ensemble model against traditional approaches, employing rigorous preprocessing, cross-validation, and performance metrics including accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, and ROC-AUC. Results demonstrate a clear hierarchy in model performance: AdaBoost achieved 76% accuracy (ROC-AUC 0.81), Gradient Boosting 79% (0.85), XGBoost 82% (0.88), and the Stacking Ensemble 86% (0.91). The Stacking Ensemble's superior performance (4.8% relative improvement over XGBoost) stems from its ability to capitalize on model diversity, combining AdaBoost's strength in classifying difficult instances, Gradient Boosting's error learning, XGBoost's complex interaction capture, and logistic regression's optimal output combination. The balanced precision (0.82) and recall (0.80) values are particularly critical for medical applications where minimizing false negatives prevents missed diagnoses. The study concludes that ensemble methods, particularly stacking, offer robust tools for early diabetes detection, with implications for developing decision support systems in resource-constrained healthcare settings.

Article 9: The Chariot, Communities, and State: Negotiating Heritage Governance in the Bungadya Jatra

Author: Bikash Gnawali (Pages 130-146)

This ethnographic case study examines the complex governance dynamics surrounding the Bungadya Jatra (Rato Matsyendranath Festival), a 7th-century living tradition in Nepal's Lalitpur district. Through policy analysis, cultural observations during the 2025 festival cycle, and interviews with eleven key stakeholders including hereditary priests, carpenters, rope-work specialists, and municipal officers, the research reveals that the festival's preservation challenges stem not from lack of rules but from fragmented governance across multiple agencies. The study applies a triangulated theoretical framework combining Material-Based, Living-Heritage, and Value-Based approaches to analyze conflicts between the 60-foot wooden chariot's traditional route and modern urban infrastructure. Findings document how the Barahi Guthiyar's traditional woodworking skills (using nail-less joints), the Yawal Guthi's rope-work expertise, and the Paneju priests' ritual knowledge are threatened by economic pressures and urban encroachment. The research identifies critical tensions: between material integrity and urban development, between ritual autonomy and state regulation, and between traditional funding systems and modern economies. The author proposes a single Festival Management Authority combining municipal planning with Guthi traditions, designation of the parade route as a "Mobile Heritage Corridor," and a "Living Human Treasures" program to support hereditary practitioners financially and technically.

Article 10: Cultural Retention and Adaptation among Nepali Immigrants in Canada

Author: Sharad Acharya (Pages 147-163)

This qualitative study addresses a significant gap in diaspora literature by examining how Nepali immigrants in Canada navigate the dual challenge of preserving cultural heritage while integrating into a multicultural society. Through semi-structured interviews with ten purposively selected first- and second-generation immigrants, the research employs thematic analysis within an integrated theoretical framework combining Acculturation Theory, Transnationalism, Cultural Identity Theory, and Social Remittance Theory. Findings reveal that major festivals (Dashain, Tihar, Losar) remain strongly preserved among first-generation immigrants, while minor rituals decline among younger generations who participate for social rather than religious reasons. Language maintenance faces significant challenges due to English dominance in schools and peer interactions, with community institutions like Gurukul schools playing vital compensatory roles. The study uniquely documents how Canadian multicultural policies facilitate cultural expression, with non-Nepali friends wearing saris during Teej celebrations. Digital media emerges as a crucial tool for cultural continuity, connecting immigrants to festivals and practices across borders. Intergenerational dynamics show second-generation youth developing hybrid identities, with some reporting feelings of marginalization due to limited cultural knowledge. The research concludes that cultural adaptation does not replace heritage but rather produces dynamic bicultural identities shaped by family practices, community support, and multicultural opportunities.

Article 11: Machine Learning for Remittance Forecasting and Macroeconomic Dynamics in Nepal: An Integrated Analytical Framework

Author: Bhola Nath Ghimire (Pages 164-179)

This innovative study develops an integrated machine learning framework for forecasting remittance inflows to Nepal and analyzing their macroeconomic impacts, addressing the limitations of traditional econometric models in capturing nonlinear dependencies and structural breaks. Using monthly data (2000-2023) from Nepal Rastra Bank, the World Bank, and the Department of Foreign Employment, the author benchmarks ARIMA and VAR models against Random Forest, XGBoost, LSTM, and a hybrid LSTM-Attention architecture. The hybrid LSTM-Attention model achieves remarkable 45% improvement in forecasting accuracy (4.9% MAPE) compared to ARIMA. SHAP analysis reveals exchange rate volatility as the most influential predictor, with an inverted U-shaped effect: moderate volatility (0.02-0.04) increases remittances, while excessive volatility (>0.06) reduces them. Oil prices show a structural break after Nepal's 2015 migration policy liberalization, with strong positive relationships emerging post-reform. Macroeconomic impact analysis using ML-augmented VAR shows a one-standard-deviation remittance shock increases GDP growth by 0.35 percentage points (peak at 6 months) and inflation by 0.18 percentage points (peak at 14 months), revealing delayed inflationary transmission. The study concludes that remittances exhibit a dual macroeconomic role—stimulating short-term growth while generating delayed inflationary pressures—recommending policy focus on managing volatility rather than levels.

Article 12: Understanding the Multifaceted Challenges of Immigrant Women Workers in Nepal

Authors: Namrata Grace Gurung & Sunita Mainali (Pages 211-219)

This groundbreaking study addresses a critically under-examined population: immigrant women workers who migrate to Nepal from other countries, primarily India and Bangladesh, and are employed in informal, unregulated sectors like domestic work, caregiving, and hospitality. Employing qualitative critical policy analysis and integrative literature review through a gender-responsive and intersectional lens, the research reveals how intersecting structures of gender, class, nationality, and legal status produce profound marginalization. The analysis demonstrates that Nepal's migration governance frameworks are structurally biased toward outbound migration, with policies like the National Action Plan on Business and Human Rights (2024-2028) failing to extend meaningful protection to inbound workers. Key findings document that employment in the informal economy places these women outside standard labor protections, leading to wage exploitation, unsafe working conditions, and harassment. Immigration status, often irregular or undocumented, creates barriers to reporting abuse and accessing justice. The study includes the poignant case of Hira Bhujel, who died after being abandoned by her employer while undocumented, illustrating the human cost of policy gaps. The authors call for a paradigm shift toward gender-responsive, intersectional approaches extending labor rights, monitoring, and grievance mechanisms to all workers within Nepal's borders regardless of origin or documentation status.

Article 13: The Bhagavad Gita as a Framework for Sattvic AI: Aligning Artificial Intelligence with Sustainable Development

Authors: Shiva Raj Adhikari, Hira Lal Shrestha & Dasarath Neupane (Pages 220-229)

This conceptually innovative article bridges ancient philosophical wisdom with contemporary technological challenges by developing a unique ethical framework for sustainable artificial intelligence based on Bhagavad Gita concepts. Critiquing the dominant "move fast and break things" approach to technology development, the authors argue that without robust ethical foundations, AI threatens to worsen sustainability crises and hinder achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. The framework applies three fundamental Gita concepts: Dharma (Cosmic Duty) to redefine AI's purpose toward Lokasamgraha (world welfare); Nishkama Karma (selfless action) to discipline AI development through process-oriented ethical review; and the three Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas) as an evaluative framework for AI systems. The authors develop practical implementation tools including Dharma Statements articulating AI's cosmic and social duty, Nishkama Development Protocols such as pre-mortem ethical failure analysis and blind ethical review, and Guna Impact Assessments (GIA) requiring developers to score systems across Sattvic, Rajasic, and Tamasic dimensions. The framework proposes governance innovations including Dharma Councils with veto powers and incentive realignment to overcome "first-mover disadvantage" for sustainability. This represents the first systematic application of Bhagavad Gita philosophy to create operational pathways for ethical and sustainable AI development.

Article 14: Gaps in Teaching Comprehensive Sexuality Education: A Review of Literature

Authors: Sharmila Pokharel & Bhimsen Devkota (Pages 230-243)

This systematic literature review examines how Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE) is actually taught to children aged 5-15 years across diverse socio-cultural contexts, with special emphasis on Nepal where progressive policies coexist with limited classroom practice. Analyzing 45 peer-reviewed studies from over 15 countries published between 2010-2024, the authors identify three major implementation gaps: inadequate teacher preparation and discomfort teaching sensitive topics; socio-cultural and religious barriers creating classroom silence; and reliance on outdated, lecture-based pedagogy rather than participatory methods. In Nepal, despite supportive policies, CSE remains fragmented, culturally shame-bound, and biologically focused, excluding critical topics like consent, gender equality, and sexual diversity. The review uniquely centers on teaching processes rather than content, revealing that teachers worldwide agree CSE is necessary but struggle with implementation due to training gaps, personal values conflicts, and cultural taboos. Students across contexts desire comprehensive information but rely on informal, often inaccurate sources. The authors propose Anderson and Krathwohl's revised Bloom's taxonomy as a framework for moving beyond factual recall toward critical thinking and practical skill development. Alternative delivery models including online platforms, peer education, and community-integrated approaches show promise for Nepal's context, where internet access is rapidly increasing among adolescents.

Article 15: Behavioural Biases and Mutual Fund Investment Decisions: The Role of Loss Aversion and Risk Perception

Authors: P Radha, Manju Priya R & G. Srividya (Pages 244-253)

This quantitative study examines how psychological biases influence mutual fund investment decisions among 180 retail investors in India, focusing specifically on loss aversion and risk perception. Using multiple regression analysis and chi-square tests, the research demonstrates that both loss aversion (β = -0.410, p < 0.001) and risk perception (β = -0.330, p < 0.001) have significant negative effects on investment decisions, together explaining 38% of the variance in investor behavior (R² = 0.38). Cross-tabulation analysis reveals that investors with low loss aversion show higher proportions in high investment decision categories, while those with high loss aversion concentrate in low decision categories. Similarly, investors with low risk perception demonstrate higher participation in high investment decisions. The study uniquely quantifies how these biases manifest in specific behaviors: investors with high loss aversion and elevated risk perception demonstrate conservative decision-making, premature redemptions during market volatility, and inconsistent investment patterns that potentially undermine long-term wealth creation. The findings challenge traditional financial theories assuming rational investor behavior, supporting prospect theory's assertion that losses hurt more than equivalent gains feel good. Practical recommendations include behavioral counseling during market downturns, simplified risk communication through scenario-based disclosures, and investor education programs focusing on bias awareness and long-term investing principles.

Article 16: Awareness and Preventive Practices related to Cervical Cancer among Women in Pokhara Metropolitan City

Author: Rojana Dhakal (Pages 254-268)

This community-based cross-sectional study assesses cervical cancer awareness and screening utilization among 464 married women aged 21-65 years in Pokhara Metropolitan City, addressing a critical public health concern in Nepal where cervical cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality. Using structured interviews and Bloom's cut-off points for knowledge assessment, the research reveals alarming gaps despite high-level awareness. While 90.3% of participants had heard of cervical cancer, 90% demonstrated poor awareness of the disease and its screening. Only 17.7% had undergone screening, with 61% of those screened reporting Pap smear tests. The primary reason for non-participation was absence of perceived health problems (79.8%), followed by inadequate knowledge about the test. Statistical analysis shows significant associations between awareness levels and educational status, occupation, age at marriage, parity, and age at first childbirth. The study contextualizes findings within WHO's 90-70-90 global strategy for cervical cancer elimination, noting that while national guidelines recommend Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid (VIA) for women of reproductive age, screening coverage remains limited with only a small proportion ever screened. The author recommends targeted culturally sensitive educational interventions addressing misconceptions about feeling healthy, provider-initiated counseling, and community-based awareness programs to improve knowledge and promote regular screening.

Closing Paragraph

Collectively, the seventeen articles in this issue of the NPRC Journal of Multidisciplinary Research offer a compelling portrait of contemporary scholarship on Nepal and the broader South Asian region. Several cross-cutting themes emerge from this diverse collection. First, a persistent implementation gap between policy intent and practical outcomes appears across multiple domains—from human rights-based development and educational reform to agricultural insurance and heritage governance—suggesting that institutional quality and administrative capacity are as critical as policy design. Second, methodological innovation is evident throughout, with studies employing machine learning for economic forecasting and disease prediction, allometric equations for carbon accounting, and qualitative approaches for understanding migration and cultural retention. Third, the issue demonstrates strong commitment to addressing pressing social challenges, including women's health, immigrant worker vulnerabilities, adolescent sexuality education, and climate-resilient infrastructure. The journal's multidisciplinary scope enables productive cross-fertilization of ideas, with governance frameworks from public administration informing analyses of heritage management, and behavioral economics insights enriching understanding of investment decisions. As Nepal continues its federal transition and grapples with sustainable development challenges, research of this caliber—grounded in local contexts while engaging with global scholarly conversations—provides essential evidence for informed policymaking and practice. This issue successfully advances the journal's mission of bridging academic research with real-world applications in Nepal and beyond.

 

 

Sustainability of Water Supply Projects

 

Dhundi Raj Dahal, PhD

dhundi_raj2000@yahoo.com

 

Received: January 10, 2024; Revised & Accepted: June 22, 2024

Copyright: Dahal (2024)

  This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License.

 

 

Abstract

Sustainability is one of the major issues for Water Supply and Sanitation activities/ projects. The project should have the measuring tools for the sustainable part. Water supply is one of the basic needs for human beings with all living things may come first air then water or soil in the universe to sustain. Sustainability indicators of water supply projects was determined by three major dimensions (i) technical, (ii) Socio-environmental, and (iii) Institutional [15]. Other aspects, functionality has divided with requirements, actions, and results. Sustainability is the combination of functionality index and sustainability dimensions on a fifty-fifty percent shearing base. The research has developed sustainability tools on the basis of available literatures and practical experiences. The tools have developed.  The project study has to take consideration for the sustainability from the pre-feasibility study, feasibility, detail study.

Keywords: Water supply, study, operation and maintenance, sustainability, functionality

 सारांश

पानी आपूर्ति र सरसफाइ गतिविधि/परियोजनाहरूको लागि टिकाउपन एक प्रमुख मुद्दा हो। परियोजनासँग टिकाउ पक्षको मापन उपकरणहरू हुनु पर्छ। पानी आपूर्ति मानव जीवनका साथै समस्त प्राणीका लागि एक आधारभूत आवश्यकता हो, जसको महत्व वायु र माटो पछिको स्थानमा आउँछ। पानी आपूर्ति परियोजनाहरूका टिकाउपन सूचकहरू तीन प्रमुख आयामहरूद्वारा निर्धारण गरिएको छ: (i) प्राविधिक, (ii) सामाजिक-वातावरणीय, र (iii) संस्थागत [१५]। अन्य पक्षहरूमा, कार्यक्षमतालाई आवश्यकताहरू, कार्यहरू, र परिणामहरूमा विभाजन गरिएको छ। टिकाउपन भनेको कार्यक्षमता सूचकाङ्क र टिकाउपन आयामहरूको पचास-पचास प्रतिशत आधारमा संयोजन हो। यस अनुसन्धानले उपलब्ध साहित्य र व्यावहारिक अनुभवको आधारमा टिकाउपन उपकरणहरू विकसित गरेको छ। परियोजना अध्ययनले पूर्व-व्यवहार्यता अध्ययन, व्यवहार्यता, विस्तृत अध्ययन देखि नै टिकाउपनको विचार गर्नु पर्छ।

कुञ्जीशब्दहरू: पानी आपूर्ति, अध्ययन, सञ्चालन र मर्मतसम्भार, टिकाउपन, कार्यक्षमता

Introduction

Sustainability is required in each and every step of the activities. Sustainability is one of the major issues for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (WSSP). One has to take consideration for the sustainability from the pre-feasibility study, feasibility, detail project report (DPR) of the study, construction period, and operation and maintenance phase. The study team for any construction must think about the sustainable part from the very beginning to the life of the project. There is always a problem finding the measuring tools for this issue in water supply projects even though the word sustainability is socio technical. Any project should have the measuring tools for the sustainable part. Water supply is one of the basic needs for human beings with all living things may come first air then water or soil in the universe to survive.

 

Water is one of the fundamental needs to keep the body alive, because the body needs nutrients and water to work properly. However, billions of people in the world still lack access to safe drinking water and sanitation. According to sustainable goal report 2021, 2 billion (26%) people lack safely managed drinking water, 3.6 billion people lack safely managed sanitation, and 2.3 billion people lack basic hygiene. 129 countries are still not on track to have sustainably managed water resources by 2030 [1].   

In this context the research paper has developed the sustainable measuring tools for the completed or substantial completed water supply project.

 

1.     Literature Review and Research Methods

Mukharjee et. al (2003) described sustainability based on the publication of WSP & IRC (2003) as the satisfactory functioning and effective use of services, and equity for men and women, rich and poor everyone having equal access to benefits from projects. Another publication of IRC by Schouten et.al., (2003) included as a part of sustainability that a statement, a system that reliable sustainability met the needs of 80 % of the population wile leaving the poorest 20 % unserved cannot be counted a success [2]. The incorporation of a measure of social equity in the definition of sustainability.

Three Pillars of Sustainability

Since 1980s, when three pillars as (i) economic, (ii) social, and (iii) environmental of sustainability widely popularized in business, government agencies, and other organizations, applied in practice [3].  

Sustainability
Economic	Social	Environment

Figure 1: Three Pillars of Sustainability

Source: Moore, 2017

UNESCO Sustainability

The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has played a key role in the development of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs. It has adopted four pillars (i) Social equity, (ii) Economic development, (iii) Environmental protection, and (iv) Cultural/Human sustainability [4].

 

UN Sustainable Development Goal

Development agenda of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG6) envisions universal sustainable and equitable access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene and elimination of open defecation by 2030 A.D. The targets of SDG6 for 2030 are [1]:

Target 6.1: By 2030 A.D., achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all.

Target 6.2: By 2030 A.D., achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations.

Target 6.3: By 2030 A.D., improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.

Target 6.4: By 2030 A.D., substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity.

Target 6.5: By 2030 A.D., implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate.

Target 6.6: By 2030 A.D., protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers, and lakes.

Target 6.A: By 2030 A.D., expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programs, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies.

Target 6.B: Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management.

 

Water Supply Sustainability in Global context

The European Union, America and Africa has discussed on water quality concern more than other issues like sustainability though in western countries there is no problems experienced of uncertainty.

The Dutch Drinking Water Decree outlines the legal requirements for drinking water quality. Limits on the concentrations of lead (10 micrograms per liter) and mercury (1 microgram per liter) in drinking water are among these regulations. The European Drinking Water Directive is the foundation for these standards. The evaluation's findings show that the Drinking Water Directive is a crucial piece of legislation that protects the quality of drinking water in European member states [5].

The Drinking Water Directive (EU 2020/2184), generally known as the Drinking Water Directive, has begun to be implemented in Finland. Making sure there is safe drinking water is the directive's main goal. This will be accomplished by looking at the drinking water quality standards established through risk management. The entire water production and distribution system, from raw water to tap water delivered to customers, must be considered throughout the risk assessment process. The World Health Organization's recommendations are typically revised together with the quality recommendations for drinking water at Finland [5].

Primary and secondary drinking water regulations exist in the USA. The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR) are primary criteria and treatment methods that are legally enforceable for public water systems. Toxin levels in drinking water are reduced by primary standards and treatment methods, protecting public health. The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs), developed by the EPA, define obligatory water quality limits for pollutants in drinking water [6].

 

Sustainability context in Nepal

The sustainability of water supply has evaluated in the context of water quality, quantity required by the users, and consistency of water supply service to the consumers have reviewed from the article published in Wash journal in 2023 [7]. The water quantity has been estimated that the urban water supply needs 100 liters to 120 liters that the project usually decides. Consistency has not been fixed yet but there are 24 hours in 360 days also found morning and evening service with enough quantity. Alternately, the supply water available whenever the consumers require is the consistency of supply. Normally, it depends on reasonably earlier repair in major and minor leakage in the system.

Government of Nepal (GoN) was committed for the provision of basic level water supply and sanitation facilities to all citizens by 2017. Water and sanitation are recognized as fundamental human rights [8].

 

Water Quality context in Nepal

Initially, GoN had adopted World Health Organization (WHO) standard for drinking water purpose but limited in theory only. It could not be made effective. After this effort, it had developed water quality standard in 2005, it stated that the existing water supplies not meeting National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS) will be improved in phased manner with appropriate treatment measures.

The Government of Nepal (GoN) has developed and made it mandatory to comply with its provisions in all new water supply systems and has triggered a water quality improvement in urban and rural water supplies, in 2022, GoN updated the National Drinking Water Quality Standards. The updated version has two tables Table ‘Ka’ and Table ‘Kha’. The parameters whose test is compulsory listed in table ‘Ka’ however, some other parameters are added in the Table ‘Kha’ according to risk and necessity of parameters for the test [9].

Salyankot Water Supply Project was studied on post-earthquake scenario during earthquake period 2015 by Mr. Shah with the dimensions as i) Technical, ii) Socio-environmental, iii) Institutional, and iv) Cost Recovery with corresponding core factors contributing for sustainability, these dimensions were identified [10]. 

Mangardh Water Supply Scheme was evaluated the water supply coverage aspect. The study was overall performance; technical performance, financial performance(tariff collection), and institutional performance (functionality index) with implementation status on the base of water safety plan (WSP) referring to the risk factor by Joshi et.al in 2020 [11].

 

Functionality

Performance is the attainment or fulfilment or functionality in the context of any development action. It also shows the sustainability part of the development project or action [12].

Institutional performance was evaluated on Dhankuta Water Supply Project by A.K. Mishra using water safety plan developed by DWSS/NMIP, 2014. The indicators were (i) WUSC registration, (ii) Own staff for maintenance, (iii) O & M fund, (iv) WUSC meetings, (v) Efficient water tariff collection, (vi) Records keeping, (vii) Spare tools & fittings, (viii) Implementation of water safety plan, (ix) Water supply service reliability, and (x) Accessibility with 100 unit of marks in Likert scale measurement [13].

Er. Ajita Devkota studied Anbukhaireni Water Supply and Sanitation Project in 2023 and found the performance which was analyzed based on the quality of water supply, reliability, and sufficiency, in which quality of water supply measured in accordance with the National Drinking Water Quality Standards [14].

 

Research Methods

Sustainability of water supply and sanitation projects has been reviewed on the past studies. The projects/ schemes have been tried to re-evaluate with the available tools. The practical experiences have fitted in the tools and further improved in detail so that there could be eased to evaluate without biasness.

The developed tools have further tested and found reliable to measure sustainable using Likert scale experience outcome from more than fifty water supply projects in Nepal. The findings have been discussed hereunder.   

The developed tools have chances of 10 per cent bias or 90 per cent level in unbiased. It is improved on the previous versions. Furthermore, this improved tool is easy to use for the water supply and sanitation projects.

 

Sustainability Dimensions

 

Sustainability Dimensions are the highest-level monitoring indicators adopted by WaterAid in Nepal. For water supply and sanitation projects, four monitoring dimensions are used (i) technical, (ii) socio-environmental, (iii) financial, and (iv) institutional. The dimension is significantly governed by many factors and subfactors. Principles of multi-criteria approaches, each set of criteria is rated depending upon its potential contribution or its significance in making the case sustainable. The weights given to dimensions, factors and sub-factors were determined through participatory methods involving sector professionals and field workers [15].

 

Conceptual Framework

Sustainability indicators of water supply projects was determined by three major dimensions (i) technical, (ii) Socio-environmental, and (iii) Institutional [15]. Next, functionality has divided with requirements, actions, and results. Sustainability is the combination of functionality index and sustainability dimensions.

The research design has been conceptualized as sustainability has two pillars (i) Functionality index, and (ii) Sustainability indicators with sub-indication as figured below.

 

 

 

Sustainability of the Projects/Actions
Functionality			Sustainability Index
Requirements	Actions	Results	Technical	Socio-environmental	Institutional
WUSC Registered, WUSC meetings, and Record keeping	Own Staff, O& M Fund, and Tariff Collection	Tools & Fittings, Water Safety Plan, Reliability, and Accessibility	Verification of QARQ (Quantity, Accessibility, Reliability, and Quality) level and physical status of the system	Health benefits (including water borne diseases) Time save, Environmental benefits, and GESI aspects	Operation and functioning of Users Committee, Skilled Technicians, O & M practice, and Financial aspects (O & M cost, Institutional support, Capital cost recovery/ upgrading the system)

 

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework of Research Sustainability

Source: Author, 2024

 

2.     Results and Discussions

Functionality

Functionality index for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (WSSP).

 

Table 1: Functionality index table

Indicator	Sub-indicators	Weightage	Not Serviceable		Up to 20%	20%-50%	50%-80%	80%-100%
			Very Bad		Bad	Satisfactory	Good	Very Good
		0-5	1		2	3	4	5
Requirements (R)9/	WSUC Registered		Not Registered		Registered but not Renewed & Audited	Audited but not renewed	Renewed & GB till 2 yrs. back	Renewed & GB conducted
		Yes (5), No (0)	1		2	3	4	5
	WSUC Meetings		No meetings or once in a year meeting		Meeting in the desires of Chairperson	Regular less than tri-monthly meetings	Regular  tri-monthly meetings	Regular monthly meetings
		Regular Yes (5), No (0)	1		2	3	4	5
	Record keeping		Rarely record keeping of connection & Tariff		Record keeping of connection & Tariff in random system	Poorly records keepings, records are available but audited till before last year	Meetings, Water connection and tariff records keeping till last months	WUSC meetings, Staff meetings, Water connection and tariff updated records keeping
		Proper (5), No (0	1		2	3	4	5
Action (A)	Having own staff with maintenance workers		No Staff		Poorly Staff hired with in daily wise basis	Poorly Staff hired with in monthly basis	Poorly managed Enough Staff	Sufficient staff with Job description
		Yes (5), No (0)	1		2	3	4	5
	O & M Fund Management		No fund		Poorly allocated fund for O & M	Fund  less than 3% of the Construction Cost	Fund  about 5% of the Construction Cost	Sufficient fund more than 5% of the Construction Cost
		Sufficient (5), No (0)	1		2	3	4	5
	Efficient water tariff collection		No tariff collection system		Poorly managed tariff collection system up to 40% of the billings	Tariffs collection 40-80%	Tariffs collection 80-95%	Tariffs collection 95% or more
		Yes (5), No (0)	1		2	3	4	5
	Tools and fittings reserve		No tools & spare parts		Tools are available but no spare parts	Poorly manage tools & spare parts	Good managed tools & spare parts	Well managed tools & spare parts stock for 3 months
		Sufficient (5), No (0)	1		2	3	4	5
Results (R)	Water Safety Plan	Functional (5), Nonfunctional (0)	1		2	3	4	5
	Reliability (360 days’ supply)		Rarely Water Supply		Poorly Water Supply	Safe Water Supply in 4hrs (2mor +2eve)/360	Safe Water Supply in 8hrs (4mor +4eve)/360	Safe Water Supply in 24/360
		Yes (5), Six month (0)	1		2	3	4	5
	Accessibility of supply		Rarely Water Supply time to collect more than 30 min.		Poorly Water Accessible on the court yards with public tapstands within 30 min.	Manageable Water Accessible on the court yards	Sufficient Water Accessible on the court yards	Sufficient Water Accessible on the top of 3 story building
		15 minutes (5), More than 30 minutes (0)	1		2	3	4	5

 

The calculation score of functionalities will be higher to the lower based on risk factors as the indicators of the index.

The calculation of sustainability will be in weighted 50% for functionality and 50% for Sustainability dimension for the whole activities or project considering risk factors.

 

Sustainability Dimensions

Sustainability index or dimension of Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (WSSP) has been modified in the three-pillar system as (i) Technical, (ii) Socio-environmental, and (iii) Institutional as stated earlier.

 

Table 2: Sustainability Dimension Table

Sustainability Dimensions	Sub-Dimensions	Weightage	V. Bad	Bad	Satisfactory	Good	Very Good
			1	2	3	4	5
	Quantity of water	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
		%	30-	40+	50+	80+	90+
Technical	Physical Quality of water	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Nos. 5 compulsory(C) +1=6 of parameter within limit		2C-	2C+	3C+	5C	6/6
	Chemical Quality of water	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Nos. 12 compulsory(C) +1=13 of parameter within limit		5-	5+	7+	12	13/13
	Biological Quality of water	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Microbial parameter % samples within limit		50-	50+	80	95	100
	Reliability of water supply	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	As per risks
	Physical status/ Structures of the system	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	As per risks
Institutional	Timely General Assembly	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	As per risks
	Water Tariff collection System	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Active involvement of WUSC team	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Record keeping Mechanism	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Community Technicians for O&M	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
Socio-environmental	Gender Equity and Social Inclusion status in team	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Social Security Risk for woman	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Environmental Health status/water borne diseases after the project	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Managing Operation and Maintenance fund	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Tariff collection	1-5	1	2	3	4	5
	Collection in %		Less than 20	20-40	40-60	60-80	80-100
	Economy Availability of fund from local bodies and others organization	1-5	1	2	3	4	5

Source: Author, 2024

 

Risks will be categorized by the researcher as the sustainability sub-dimensions of the system. The score of the risks will be prejudiced as the higher to the lower.

 

Conclusion and Recommendation

The project sustainability will be adopted in weighted 50% for functionality index and 50% for Sustainability dimension for the whole activities or project considering risk factors. The criteria has been fixed as per the experience on water supply and sanitation projects with reviewing the available literature.

Sustainability is one of the serious issues for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (WSSP). One has to take consideration for the sustainability from the pre-feasibility study, feasibility, detail study. Further research and criteria could be reviewed for the project, as per the time advanced and complexity come to the situation.

 

References

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